Models of Instructional Design Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Models of Instructional Design - Essay Example The main models of instructional design are conceptualizing instructional design, a stimulus-response-reinforcement model and cognitive learning theory. Conceptualizing instructional design was developed by Gagne and Briggs during the 1970s. Thos theory incorporates cognitive theory popular during this period of time. Gagne and Briggs defined a set of requirements for instructional design systems, including that the system (a) must be designed for the individual, (b) should include immediate and long-range phases, (c) should substantially affect individual development, and (d) must be based on knowledge of how people learn (Gagn & Briggs, 1974). Their theory was based on a set of capabilities, or learning outcomes, that students would acquire through instruction. These outcomes were classified into five categories: verbal information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, motor skills, and attitude. The second theory of instructional design is based on behavior characteristics and behavior patterns. A stimulus-response-reinforcement model was developed during the 1960s and was based on behaviorist learning theories. Studies sought to determine the most effective means of implementing a stimulus-response-reinforcement model to ensure that the prescribed learning outcomes would be achieved. A major goal of research centered around a behaviorist task analysis and the development of behavioral objectives for learning (Tennyson, 1972 cited Jonassen et al 1989). The third theory selected for analysis was developed during 1980s and influenced by new concepts and investigations in the field of cognitive psychology. Tennyson and Rasch (1988) offered a theory of instructional design that directly attaches specific allocations of instructional time to desired educational objectives and goals. They prescribed an instructional design theory that links cognitive learning theory with appropriate instructional strategies. By allocating time across a range of objectives they blended the structured and discovery approaches. In the acquisition of knowledge both structured and discovery strategies are employed. Although their goal was improving employment of knowledge, they specified both group and individual situations to help learners elaborate and extend their individual knowledge bases and cognitive processes (Scandura & Scandura 1980). In contrast to two previous theories, cognitive learning theory explains mental processes and takes into account thinking and perception processes. In contrast to this theory the goals of the behavioral analysis were on identifying small, incremental tasks or subskills that the learner needed to acquire for successful completion of the instruction, designing specific objectives that would lead to the acquisition of those subskills, and sequencing subskill acquisition in the order that would most efficiently lead to successful learner outcomes (Scandura & Scandura 1980). Also important to researchers' investigations was the search for variables of individual differences. The goal from this perspective is the development of instructional programs that would enable the majority of students to achieve levels of performance that were predetermined in terms of behaviorally defined objectives (Jonassen et al 198

Studying Language Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Studying Language - Essay Example In addition, social variations in the use of dialects exist, the linguistic levels to which these can be applied include vocabulary, idiomacity, grammar and pronunciation. In simple terms, this is the words used, the special meanings and forms they are used in, the way they are place within sentences and how they are spoken. How dialect, or its social variation 'sociolect' is used, depends on the situation a person is in elements of which are described as who, what and where, all of which will impact on the style of language usage. For example, people will often use what they describe as their 'posh' or 'telephone' voice when answering a call. So somebody from Northern Ireland, speaking in a 'casual style' of dialect, may greet a friend or acquaintance with adda boutcha(How are you), will change this to ow're ya doin- still dialectic, but in the 'careful' style when meeting someone new or who they consider superior. There is more attention paid to the use of speech, with the changes in vocabulary, idiom and pronunciation, bearing out the contention that situations influence how speech is monitored. In sociolinguistic terms, shared knowledge of a language by a sufficient number of people creates a dialect. As with many languages, dialects have their own peculiar sounding of words, particularly where vowe ls are concerned. An illustration which shows how this works comes from the East Yorkshire coast. Received pronunciation, or indeed other parts of Britain, will fully round out the vowel sounds in the words 'bonny bairn'. With the flattened vowel sounds of Hull and the East Coast, this becomes something like 'bernie bern' - which takes 2. the issue into the realms of the use of words in dialect. 'Bonny' could be 'beautiful' elsewhere, and of course 'bairn' is 'baby'. The Scots and Irish would sound the 'r', but it is virtually silent in the Hull example. Other examples of different lexical terms demonstrate dialectic differences where one part of the country talks about having dinner, another calls it supper. In American English, a lift becomes an elevator and the police station is the precinct, and so on. The precinct is where shopping takes place in large British cities, but the Americans go to the mall. So it can safely be said that everybody talks in a dialect of some sort, or at least incorporates linguistic elements of regional or social variations into verbal communication, true about all languages, worldwide. One amazing example of Ulster dialectic mystery concerns the sedum plant of the dark, ruby red flowered variety. In Northern Ireland, this is a 'Mullingar Heifer' and it is difficult to imagine what a nat ive of Bristol would make of it. Coupled with dialect, the regional accent is found, which may account for confusion as to differences in definition. Accent is defined (COD, p.6) as . Prominence given to syllable by stress or in some languages, by pitch[...]2. Individual, local or national mode of pronunciation;An accent refers to a more general pronunciation of English and (indeed other languages) and is not specifically applied to traditional dialect words. The different linguistic levels involved with accents are described as Segmental phonemic (units of significant sounds) and Suprasegmental stress, rhythm and intonation. Speaking with a regional accent determines a person's geographical origins,